Microbes living in soils in Australia’s coastal areas, inland agricultural regions and vast deserts may hold important links to the next generation of antibiotics for humans and animals. 

Dr Zeinab Khalil, a 2024 ARC Future Fellow whose work focuses on “Towards the sustainable discovery and development of new antibiotics” is at the centre of this effort. 

Based at the UQ Biosustainability Hub, part of the Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology at The University of Queensland, Dr Khalil is an internationally recognised expert in microbial natural product biodiscovery, medicinal chemistry and metabolomics. 

Her work is aimed at countering the growing global threat of antimicrobial resistance in humans, animals and agriculture while doing so in ways that protect ecosystems. 

Turning microbial diversity into sustainable solutions 

Through her ARC Future Fellowship, Dr Khalil is building BLOOM. BLOOM, which stands for Biosustainable Life Out Of Microbes, is an integrated research platform dedicated to unlocking the potential of microbes collected from diverse environments including soils, marine ecosystems, plants seaweeds and host-associated microbiomes. 

“Through our BLOOM program we are turning microbial diversity from nature into practical, sustainable innovations for health, agriculture and the environment,” she says. 

BLOOM brings together microbial discovery, chemistry, genomics, protein analysis and metabolomics techniques that allow scientists to identify, characterise and understand the molecules microbes produce to bridge the gap between fundamental scientific discovery and real‑world application, discovering new, useful molecules and developing them at scale. 

From citizen science to deep discovery 

Dr Khalil previously directed Soils for Science, Australia’s first citizen science program designed to engage the public in studying soil microbes. That experience helped shape both her scientific approach and her commitment to collaboration.  

“My ARC Fellowship is enabling me to study microbes at a far more in‑depth level than before, moving from discovery alone to understanding microbial chemistry, genetics and biosynthetic potential in detail,” she says. “Through this integrated, multidisciplinary approach is how we find the next generation of drug leads.” 

This deeper level of analysis allows her team to explore not just whether a microbe produces a useful compound, but how stable, scalable and sustainable that production could be. 

Why microbes matter across every sector 

Microbes have largely been overlooked as a source of future biosustainable solutions, despite historically underpinning many of the most transformative discoveries in medicine and agriculture. Many of the world’s most important antibiotics, antifungals and bioactive compounds including penicillin and streptomycin were originally derived from microorganisms. 

“If you look around,” Dr Khalil says, “most antibiotics and many other drugs and natural products all came from microbes. What interests me is biosustainability – beyond soil microbes and in marine environments, plants, animal guts, and even the human gut.” 

Many microbes, and the compounds they produce, support human health, regulate immune systems, protect crops, improve soil structure and strengthen ecosystems. For example, soil microbes can suppress plant pathogens and promote healthier crop growth, while microbes in the human gut produce metabolites that influence immunity and overall health. Yet in Australia, one of the world’s most microbially diverse continents, this resource remains largely unexplored. 

“Australia spans bushland, deserts, beaches and marine environments,” she says. “Within these lie enormous chemical diversity that could help solve some of the world’s most pressing global concerns, such as antimicrobial resistance to sustainable agriculture and environmental restoration.” 

Rethinking agriculture and environmental impact 

BLOOM’s work is timely in agriculture, where reliance on synthetic fungicides is increasing resistance, reducing soil biodiversity, polluting waterways and creating resistant pathogens. 

“Growers are facing increasing antifungal resistance,” Dr Khalil explains. “Often the approach is to flood environments with chemical agents. Yes, they may kill the target fungus, but they also disrupt soil microbes, accumulate in waterways, and impact aquaculture, fish and even seaweeds.” 

Microbe‑based solutions such as biological fertilisers and naturally derived antifungals offer a sustainable alternative.

Collaboration brings complementary strengths 

BLOOM brings together academia, industry, community groups and policymakers and their complementary strengths, working together in ways that that accelerate discovery-to-application pipelines, reduce time to market, and enable scalable, real-world solutions. 

This work is further strengthened through partnerships with industry leaders such as Agilent Technologies, whose advanced analytical platforms support high-resolution metabolomic profiling and accelerate the identification of novel bioactive compounds. These collaborations ensure that discoveries are not only scientifically robust, but also scalable and ready for translation into practical solutions. 

Through the UQ Biosustainability Hub, research teams spanning genomics, microbiology, synthetic biology and chemistry are directly paired with industrial partners to fast-track innovation from early discovery to application and commercialisation.

“We bring all parties together and ask: what real-world problems are you facing?” Dr Khalil says.  “Then we design microbial solutions to meet those needs, whether that means discovering new antibiotics, developing sustainable antifungals for agriculture, or identifying beneficial microbes for gut health and functional foods.” 

Collaborators range from international universities exploring biodegradable food packaging derived from microbial compounds, to industry partners studying gut microbes for next‑generation functional foods such as weight‑management yoghurt. 

In another collaboration, the Capricorn Conservation Council in Rockhampton is working with BLOOM to explore soil microbiomes and their role in water retention. 

The partnership includes school visits, community talks and on‑site sample collection, integrating biosustainability education alongside science innovation.

A growing, shared platform 

BLOOM is still in its early stages, but it is developing rapidly. The platform already includes around 250 environmental samples, yielding more than 600 microbial strains. Dr Khalil’s vision is to make BLOOM a shared international resource. 

“I want BLOOM to be a platform anyone can contribute to and benefit from,” she says. “Drug discovery is just one part. Others might study these microbes for agriculture, environmental repair or new materials.” 

For Dr Khalil, Citizen Science Month speaks to the essence of BLOOM’s philosophy: science works best when sectors share knowledge and expertise. 

“The more expertise involved … community members and students to farmers, industry and policymakers, the greater the impact we can have, and scale of discoveries we can unearth.”

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a common and usually innocuous virus that infects up to 95% of the world’s population. Typically transmitted through saliva, EBV remains in the immune system for life. In individuals with certain genetic risk factors it may later trigger problems with how the immune system behaves. While infection is often asymptomatic, a small proportion of individuals develop glandular fever. 

However, growing evidence suggests that the virus may play a much more significant role in disease pathogenesis. Research has shown that the vast majority of people who develop the complex autoimmune and neurodegenerative condition multiple sclerosis (MS) have previously been infected with EBV, indicating EBV as a key contributor to disease development.

Over the past decade, EBV-MS research has expanded rapidly, spanning large population studies, genomics, immunology and clinical trials across multiple continents. 

In Australia, more than 37,700 people are living with MS.  

Researchers around the world are investigating the connection between EBV and MS, examining whether the development of the disease may be linked to specific genetic variations, or strains, of EBV.

Dr Yuan Zhou is the lead investigator of a major Australian project (funded by MRFF) within the Australian Consortium for EBV Research in MS (ACE-MS). Dr Zhou is based at the Menzies Institute for Medical Research at the University of Tasmania. 

Coordinated by MS Australia, the ACE-MS consortium attracted participation from 20 research groups across Australia and brought together 11 major EBV projects with >$10M in funding for EBV research.   

Dr Zhou’s team is working to establish whether particular EBV genetic variants are associated with an increased risk of developing MS, with the aim of developing a risk scoring approach.
 

Building Australian EBV reference genomes 

As part of the project, a library of EBV reference genomes specifically relevant to the Australian population will be created. This resource could help inform the design of future EBV vaccines. 

“The development of a country‑specific library of EBV reference genomes is significant because EBV is not genetically uniform across populations. Its variation is shaped by geography, ethnicity and local transmission patterns,” explains Dr Zhou. 

A nationally representative EBV genome library may help identify high‑risk viral variants, enable more accurate links between EBV strain types and disease outcomes, and support the development of targeted prevention and screening strategies
 

Dr Zhou’s team, in collaboration with researchers from QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute and the University of Queensland, is working closely with interdisciplinary research teams across Asia and Europe to improve MS diagnosis, treatment and prevention. 

Key international collaborators include the Genome Institute of Singapore and partners involved in the European EBV-MS Consortium, funded through the Horizon Europe research program and comprising >10 institutions across different European countries such as the Netherlands, Switzerland and Spain.
 

“Currently, by the time MS is diagnosed, there is already damage occurring in the brain. It is hard to turn back the clock,” says Dr Zhou.
 

“If we are able to show that MS development is influenced by specific EBV strains, there may be future opportunities to prevent the disease through early or preventative interventions.” 

Part of a global research effort 

Dr Zhou says these national and international collaborations are contributing to a growing global effort to better understand the role of EBV in MS and related conditions.
 

Genomic studies form one part of a much broader body of research into EBV and MS, alongside work on EBV‑specific T‑cell therapies and clinical trials investigating their use in people with MS.
 

“The rate of MS continues to grow, and there is presently no cure. While there are treatments that can help manage the disease, they cannot prevent disability from progressing,” Dr Zhou says.
 

“Collectively, researchers are trying to make significant inroads towards improving outcomes for people with MS.” 

“The beauty of this work is that if we are on the right path, there is great potential to develop a vaccine that could benefit many people.”
 

Evidence from the US 

A major study published in Science followed more than 10 million US military personnel and found compelling evidence that infection with Epstein-Barr virus is a trigger for most cases of multiple sclerosis.
 

Of the 801 individuals who developed MS during the study period, all but one had tested positive for EBV before their MS symptoms began. The findings suggest EBV is the strongest known risk factor for MS, increasing the risk of developing the disease by more than 30‑fold following infection.  

One of the body’s smallest organs, the human brain, makes up around 2% of our body weight. Yet it consumes approximately 20% of the body’s energy. This makes the brain one of the most energy hungry organs in the body.

These facts are derived from studies that measure how much oxygen and glucose the brain and body consume. Using metabolic and brain imaging techniques, researchers can track how much fuel is used by different parts of the body.

Why does the brain need so much energy?

So where does all this energy go? A large part of the answer lies in how neurons communicate. The brain contains about 86 billion neurons. These specialised cells send electrical signals and communicate with other neurons, muscles, and gland cells using chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.

Each time a neuron sends an electrical signal, tiny, charged particles move across its cell membrane. To keep this system working, neurons must constantly maintain and restore delicate differences in these charged particles, known as ion gradients, across the membrane.

Maintaining these gradients is surprisingly metabolically expensive. After each electrical signal, the neuron must actively pump these ions back across the membrane to reset itself for the next message. These pumps run continuously and consume large amounts of energy.

The hidden cost of neural signalling

Electrical signalling is just one part of the story. When an electrical signal reaches the end of a neuron, it triggers the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. These molecules cross a tiny gap between neurons known as the synapse, allowing one neuron to pass information to the next.

This chemical communication is also metabolically expensive. Neurons must produce neurotransmitters, package them into tiny vesicles, release them at the synapse, and then recycle or break them down after the signal has been transmitted.

Multiply these processes across 86 billion neurons and more than 100 trillion synapses, working continuously even when you are resting, the brain’s enormous energy demands begin to make sense.

Why evolution favoured such an expensive organ

This raises an interesting question: if the brain is so metabolically expensive to run, why did evolution favour such a costly organ?

The answer is that brains provide enormous advantages for flexible behaviour. Organisms with relatively simple nervous systems can rely on reflexes, or automatic responses to stimuli. But organisms with larger and more complex brains can do much more. They can learn from past experiences, anticipate future events, plan actions, and adapt to changing environments.

In other words, the brain’s main role is not just thinking in the abstract. Its job is to guide behaviour in ways that increase the chances of survival and reproduction. By integrating information from the senses and predicting what might happen next, the brain helps organisms make better decisions about how to act.

Energy efficiency and the predictive brain

Interestingly, the brain’s high energy cost may also help explain how it operates. Because neural activity is metabolically expensive, the brain cannot afford to process every piece of information in full detail. Instead, many scientists believe the brain has evolved strategies to be efficient.

One influential idea in neuroscience is that the brain constantly predicts incoming sensory information, allowing it to process the world more quickly and with less energy.

This link between brain activity and energy use is also important for neuroscience research. Many brain imaging methods, such as PET and fMRI, do not measure neural activity directly. Instead, they detect changes in metabolic activity, glucose consumption, blood flow, and oxygen use, which serve as indirect indicators of how active different parts of the brain are.

Thinking isn’t free

So the next time you feel mentally tired, it may help to remember that thinking is not free. Even when you are resting, your brain is quietly consuming a remarkable share of your body’s energy – about one in five calories – to keep billions of neurons ready to process the world.

Bradley Jack was a 2024 ACT Young Tall Poppy recipient.

Ref:

Dr Bradley Jack

Turning the tide: seagrass as critical natural infrastructure

Most Australians will never see it.

Beneath shallow coastal waters, from Western Australia’s southern coastline near Esperance to the tropical lagoons of the Great Barrier Reef, vast underwater meadows stretch quietly across the seafloor. They rarely make headlines.

These seagrass meadows may be among the most important ecosystems on earth.

“These underwater meadows are out of sight for most people, which is probably why they’ve been overlooked for so long,” says Professor Peter Macreadie, Director of the Blue Carbon Lab and Director of the Centre for Nature Positive Solutions at RMIT University. “But if you were designing the perfect coastal ecosystem — one that supports fisheries, protects shorelines, filters water and stores carbon — you’d end up with something that looks a lot like seagrass.”

A global ecosystem hiding in plain sight

Seagrasses occur in shallow coastal waters on every continent except Antarctica, forming extensive underwater meadows that support marine life and stabilise coastal environments.

Australia is a global stronghold for seagrass. The country supports roughly half of the world’s seagrass species and some of the largest meadows ever recorded, including the vast seagrass landscapes of Shark Bay in Western Australia. Northern Australia in particular is recognised as a global hotspot for seagrass diversity. “Australia holds an extraordinary share of the planet’s seagrass ecosystems,” Macreadie says. “We also carry a major responsibility for protecting them.”

“These meadows are the ecological engine rooms of our coasts,” Macreadie says. “They underpin fisheries, support biodiversity and help keep coastal waters healthy.”

Globally, scientists recognise more than 60 species of seagrass, forming one of the ocean’s most productive ecosystems.

The nurseries of the sea

Seagrass meadows act as nursery habitat for many marine species.

Their dense leaves create shelter where juvenile fish, prawns and crabs can hide from predators while they mature. Many species that support commercial and recreational fisheries depend on seagrass habitats during early life stages.

“When you lose seagrass, you’re not just losing plants,” Macreadie says. “You’re losing the nursery grounds that sustain fisheries.”

Seagrass meadows also support iconic wildlife. Green turtles feed on seagrass leaves, while dugongs depend heavily on seagrass meadows for food.

“These animals are sometimes described as the grazers of the sea,” Macreadie says. “Where you have healthy seagrass meadows, you often see healthy populations of turtles and dugongs.”

Natural coastal protection

Seagrass also plays a critical role in stabilising coastlines.

Its root and rhizome systems bind sediments together while the leaves slow water movement, helping to reduce erosion and keep coastal waters clearer. In combination with coral reefs and mangroves, seagrass ecosystems can reduce wave energy and protect shorelines from storm impacts.

“In a world where we spend enormous sums building coastal defenses, it’s easy to overlook the protection that natural ecosystems already provide,” Macreadie says.

A powerful carbon sink

Seagrass ecosystems also play a significant role in climate regulation.

Like plants on land, seagrasses absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. Much of this carbon becomes trapped in the sediments beneath the meadows, where it can remain stored for millennia.

“Seagrass ecosystems are among the most efficient natural carbon sinks on the planet,” Macreadie says. “They capture carbon and lock it away in coastal sediments for thousands of years.”

Because of this ability, seagrass ecosystems are recognised as an important component of the world’s blue carbon systems, alongside mangroves and salt marshes.

A disappearing ecosystem

Despite their importance, seagrass ecosystems have declined in many regions around the world.

Coastal development, declining water quality, sediment runoff, dredging and climate change have all contributed to losses.

Scientists estimate that globally, seagrass meadows have been disappearing for decades, with significant declines documented across many coastal regions.

“These ecosystems are incredibly valuable, yet historically we’ve treated them as expendable,” Macreadie says.

Turning the tide: seagrass as critical natural infrastructure

In encouraging news, when pressures are reduced, seagrass ecosystems can recover.

Improving water quality, protecting coastal habitats and restoring damaged areas have already helped seagrass recover in several regions.

“In places where we reduce pollution and protect habitat, seagrass can return,” Macreadie explains. “That shows us these ecosystems are resilient if we give them the chance.”

For Macreadie, the next step is recognising seagrass meadows as critical natural infrastructure.

“If we want resilient coastlines, healthy fisheries and meaningful climate action, protecting seagrass needs to be part of the solution. Seagrass might not be as famous as coral reefs, but its importance is enormous. These underwater meadows quietly support the health of our oceans and our coastlines.”

Macreadie says there is no silver bullet. “If seagrass is seen as conservation, it competes for limited public and philanthropic funding. Treat seagrass as infrastructure, and it becomes part of how we manage coasts, economies and risk.”

Loneliness, the gap between desired and actual social connection, is being experienced by one in six Australians aged 65 and older. And this perceived deficit of meaningful relationships only worsens with age.

The social challenge of loneliness is a major health concern for older Australians, and it compounds with age-associated hearing loss, according to a study led by Associate Professor Dona Jayakody from the University of Western Australia.

“Hearing loss has been shown to significantly increase the odds of experiencing moderate and intense emotional loneliness,” says Jayakody.

“Our findings suggest that untreated hearing loss particularly undermines intimate, partner, or ‘inner circle’ relationships, where subtle verbal and emotional cues are crucial.”

In older adults aged 70 and above, approximately 70% have hearing loss. Unsurprisingly, the likelihood of experiencing moderate and intense emotional loneliness increases with age-related hearing loss.

The same study also found that an interaction between older age and poorer hearing was associated with reduced social interaction, suggesting that ageing and hearing loss together may impact social networks.

Social effects related to hearing loss

“Communication is foundational to social life. Hearing loss impairs meaningful communication, leading to misunderstandings and withdrawal from conversations,” Jayakody explains.

“It also strains relationships, as communication partners often have to repeat themselves, speak loudly, and speak slowly and articulately.”

Jayakody says as a result, people tend to limit their contact with those with a hearing loss, which can make them feel lonely and isolated.

Loneliness stemming from solo living

Study participants who lived alone had 55% higher odds of moving into a more severe emotional loneliness category compared with those living with others.

Hearing loss and a link to depression, anxiety and stress
The same authors have reported an association between hearing loss and depression, anxiety, and stress. These findings highlight a bidirectional relationship in which hearing loss, loneliness, and psychological distress can reinforce one another over time.

Clinical and public health implications: integrated approach to hearing care needed

Dr Jayakody is calling for an integrated approach to hearing care which incorporates the use of suitable hearing devices together with psychosocial assessment and support.

“Hearing loss not only impairs effective communication; it is a psychosocial risk factor. I would like to see healthcare professional consider loneliness, peoples’ living situation and mood as part of integrated treatment regimes.

“Addressing hearing loss in older Australians with suitable hearing devices, such as hearing aids, hearing implants, and hearables is the first step.
“Communication strategies, education, and support for families, caregivers and friends can also help hearing-impaired individuals communicate effectively.

“By integrating hearing care with psychosocial assessment and support, services may help reduce the burden of loneliness and improve overall wellbeing in older adults with hearing loss.”

Our exposure to plastic particles from microplastics to nanoplastics starts from the second we sip tap water in the morning. When water boils inside a plastic kettle. When food is prepared using plastic utensils, and when meals are reheated in plastic takeaway containers. At the end of the day, dishwashers and washing machines send millions of these particles into wastewater, which eventually makes its way back into the environment.

Measuring the impacts of these plastics on humans from microplastics to nanoplastics is extremely challenging, says Dr Elvis Okoffo, Research Fellow at the Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland.

Tiny particles present big challenges

“Microplastics are defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm in diameter, with many existing in the micrometre size range and often not visible to the naked eye. Nanoplastics are substantially smaller, typically below 1 µm (and often <100 nm), approaching the size of viruses, and require specialised analytical techniques for detection beyond conventional light microscopy.

The behaviour of these particles in biological systems including their potential to cross epithelial barriers, enter the bloodstream, and accumulate in tissues or organs remains incompletely understood. A growing body of research is therefore focused on characterising their transport pathways, bioavailability, and potential health risks associated with micro- and nanoplastic exposure’’.

Exposure in focus

Microplastics and nanoplastics are everywhere inside our homes, in the water we drink, and in the utensils and containers we use. Studying how we are exposed to these tiny particles, how they are released from food contact materials, move through the environment, and potentially affect human health is the focus of Dr Elvis Okoffo, Research Fellow at the Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland.

During his PhD, Dr Okoffo developed quantitative analytical methods to measure plastic residues in Australian wastewater treatment plants and biosolids. Tracking how these particles are released into the environment is central to his work.

Smaller than the eye can see

Detecting, characterising and quantifying micro- and nanoplastics across a large variety of sizes involves applying techniques such as pressurised liquid extraction, ultrafiltration, Vibrational microspectroscopy and pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS).

“These techniques allow us to measure plastics from visible microplastics down to nanoplastics that are otherwise impossible to see,” says Dr Okoffo.

“By applying several methods to the same samples, we can cross-check results and gain confidence in our measurements, giving a clearer picture of how plastics move through wastewater, biosolids, and the environment, as well as how we are exposed in daily life.”

In practical terms, Dr Okoffo’s research helps to reveal the origins of plastic pollution, how it spreads, and what strategies can reduce exposure and environmental release, bridging environmental science, analytical chemistry, and public health.

The presence of plastic in drinking water

Dr Okoffo’s preliminary work on plastic particles in drinking water* has already confirmed that plastics are present in tap water.

This finding raises important questions about where these particles originate – for instance from source waters, treatment plants, distribution pipes, or even household taps and their rubber seals and how exposure can be reduced at the source.

To tackle these challenges, Dr Okoffo has been awarded an ARC DECRA Fellowship at the Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, where he is leading a project to trace micro- and nanoplastics through drinking water systems.

The research combines advanced analytical methods to detect and characterise plastics, pinpoint their sources, and evaluate practical solutions such as household and point-of-use filtration systems to reduce exposure before water reaches consumers.

“If we detect plastics in tap water, the next step is to test filtration systems to see how effectively they can remove these particles before they reach our homes,” says Dr Okoffo.

By identifying where these plastics come from, and how they travel through water networks, the project aims to close critical knowledge gaps and deliver actionable strategies that protect both human health and the environment.

Coming out in the wash

From dishwashers to washing machines, many everyday household appliances quietly release vast amounts of microplastics into our wastewater. Washing machines, in particular, shed millions of microscopic fibres and fragments from synthetic clothing during each cycle. These particles are often too small to be fully captured by conventional treatment systems, allowing some to pass through into rivers, bays, and coastal waters.

Much of what is captured during treatment ends up in biosolids a nutrient-rich by-product made from treated wastewater and organic matter. These biosolids are frequently applied to agricultural land as fertiliser or otherwise disposed of in the environment, meaning the plastics they contain can re-enter soils, waterways, and potentially even the food chain.

“This shows that plastic pollution doesn’t just disappear down the drain. Rather, it moves through our systems and often returns to the environment in different forms,” says Dr Okoffo.

“That’s why we need prevention at the source, including innovations such as built-in filtration systems in washing machines and dishwashers that can capture fibres and plastic particles before they ever reach wastewater.”

Environmental accumulation

Beyond the household, Dr Okoffo’s research traces where these plastics ultimately accumulate. Supported by the Max Day Environmental Science Fellowship, he has investigated microplastic contamination across Moreton Bay, uncovering historical build-up of plastics in sediments, elevated concentrations in mangroves near industrial areas, and ongoing contamination in water and seafood. The findings show how everyday emissions from homes and cities can accumulate over time in sensitive coastal ecosystems.

At the same time, Dr Okoffo has helped advance how scientists measure these particles. By developing and combining cutting-edge analytical techniques capable of detecting plastics from micro- to nanoscale, his work has improved the accuracy, reliability, and confidence of plastic measurements across complex environmental samples an essential step toward understanding real exposure risks.

“We still have a long way to go in understanding micro- and nanoplastics and what they mean for human health,” he says. “But it’s a rapidly emerging field, and I’m passionate about identifying practical steps people can take every day to lower their exposure and reduce how much plastic we return to the environment.”

It all starts at home

Dr Okoffo applies this philosophy in his own home. Inside his kitchen there are no plastic chopping boards, disposable takeaway cups, plastic kettles, plastic cups or single-use food containers.

Instead, he opts for glass, stainless steel, and reusable alternatives.

“These are small daily changes that, collectively, can make a meaningful difference.”

References

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389423022975

Hundreds of kilometres beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet lie vast and dynamic subglacial water systems comprised of large lakes, drainage networks and channelised flow paths that fill and drain over a wide range of timescales, from days to decades, and possibly longer.

Despite their surrounding below-freezing conditions, these waters remain in liquid form, due to the immense pressure of the overlying ice, combined with heat from the Earth below and friction generated as the ice flows.

Hidden waters and how behaviours could influence ice flow

In Antarctica alone, just 766 of these subglacial lakes are documented, and only 231 active lakes known. Scientists like Chen Zhao, Senior Research Fellow in Ice Sheet Modelling, together with ice sheet modelling team in University of Tasmania and colleagues from Finland and France have been exploring the hidden water beneath the ice and how their behaviours could influence the ice flow and Antarctica’s contribution to sea level rises.

We simulated subglacial water pressure across Antarctica, revealing vulnerable regions potentially influenced by subglacial water, and mapped both active (blue) and stable (yellow) subglacial lakes and subglacial water channels (black lines). Zhao, C., et al, 2025. Nature Communications.

“Satellite observations show that Antarctica lost about 2,700 billion tonnes of ice between 1992 and 2020, raising global sea levels by over 7mm. Annual ice loss is now more than double the rate of the 1990s,” Zhao explained.

As mass losses from Antarctica and Greenland continue to accelerate, sea levels are expected to rise even faster.

“To understand how quickly and how much Antarctica will contribute to future sea-level rise, my research uses advanced numerical models to simulate how Antarctic ice flows, how it interacts with the subglacial meltwater and ocean, and how these processes control the rate of ice loss.”

A global effort to convert science into future sea-level projections

Converting this science into future sea-level projections is a global effort led through the Ice Sheet Model Intercomparison Project for CMIP6 (ISMIP6). In this project, research teams worldwide run the same climate scenarios across different ice-sheet models to quantify Antarctica’s future contribution to sea-level rise — a collaboration that Zhao’s team is a part of. Results from ISMIP6 feed directly into the IPCC’s global climate assessments, shaping the sea-level rise projections used by governments worldwide.

Hidden hydrology and sea level rise

“As ice slides over the bedrock beneath Antarctica, meltwater trapped at the base of the ice is released and can eventually flow into the ocean. This hidden hydrology — the presence, pressure, movement of water beneath the ice sheet — strongly influences basal sliding and ice-sheet dynamics. If water pressure at the base is high, basal friction drops, and parts of the ice sheet can slide more readily. This makes subglacial water a critical control on ice discharge into the ocean.”

“In the past ISMIP6 and IPCC sea level rise projections, the ice sheet modelling community has largely not considered how evolving subglacial water systems affects basal sliding. The water released from beneath the ice into the ocean can enhance the basal melting beneath floating ice shelves, which in turn weakens the ice and allows even more ice to flow into the ocean.”

“Previous reports have not considered this at all.”

Subglacial waters ‘significant’ in their role in global sea-level rise 

Zhao describes Antarctica’s contribution to global sea-level rise as highly uncertain but potentially immense, with subglacial water acting as a previously underappreciated accelerator of ice loss.

“In our recent paper titled “Subglacial water amplifies Antarctic contributions to sea-level rise’, published in Nature, we revealed that incorporating the evolving subglacial water can amplify ice discharge across the Antarctic Ice Sheet by up to threefold above the standard approach without including subglacial water in the model, potentially contributing an additional 2.2 metres to sea-level rise by 2300.”

“If realised, this scale of rise would redraw coastlines worldwide, placing many of today’s major coastal cities and low-lying island nations at severe and potentially irreversible risk — particularly in Australia and the Pacific Islands, where sea level has already been rising faster than the global average.

“We demonstrate that water at the base of ice sheets influences sliding behaviour and that its exclusion from models can underestimate sea-level rise projections and delay the predicted onset of tipping points.”

A chart contrasting the different contributions to sea-level rise from the Antarctic Ice Sheet depending on how subglacial water pressure is included. Zhao, C., et al, 2025. Nature Communications.

Behind the modelling

Using state-of-the-art ice sheet modelling, the research explored how different assumptions about water pressure at the ice base affect sea-level rise projections from 2015 to 2300.

“Our results indicate that incorporating subglacial water can amplify ice discharge across the Antarctic Ice Sheet by up to threefold above the standard approach, potentially contributing an additional 2.2 metres to sea-level rise by 2300,” Zhao explains.

Notably, a smoothly decreasing basal drag near the grounding line more than doubles grounding line flux by 2300 relative to scenarios where effective pressure is simplified into a spatially constant coefficient. Basin-specific responses vary significantly, with some scenarios advancing tipping points by up to 40 years. These findings underscore the critical need to integrate evolving subglacial hydrology into ice sheet models.

The study shows that when friction beneath the ice near the coast is allowed to decrease realistically as water pressure builds up, more than twice as much ice can flow into the ocean by 2300 compared with models that assume constant conditions beneath the ice. Different parts of Antarctica respond in very different ways, with some regions reaching dangerous tipping points up to 40 years earlier. The results highlight that future sea-level rise cannot be reliably predicted without accounting for the hidden water systems beneath the ice sheet.

When Jasneek Chawla commenced her PhD evaluating the impact of sleep interventions on children with Down syndrome, she didn’t realise just how deeply many families of children with disability were struggling.

“Each time I did a clinic I could see families struggling. Struggling with all aspects of life. Time and time again these families were being told by health professionals to “just get on with it”.

“They didn’t feel they could ask for help.”

Studies show that children with Down syndrome are six times more likely to have sleep problems. And parents and siblings experience the ripple effects. According to Jasneek, significant inequity exists in the provision of sleep health care for these children, and little support for their families who experience the often debilitating effects of sleep deprivation alongside their child.

“While parents acknowledged that sleep disruption had adverse and pervasive impacts on their wellbeing and family dynamics, they accepted sleep difficulties as a regular part of raising any child, particularly one with a disability,” Jasneek explains.

When they did seek treatment, parents often reported receiving insensitive, and inadequate care.

“Healthcare professionals were often normalising children’s sleep difficulties. This was resulting in sub-optimal treatment. At times, they failed to refer families to sleep services.”

Some examples of insensitive guidance were extreme. “One family was told to talk to their child with dog commands.”

Five major themes quickly emerged from her research. “That childrens’ sleep issues are often very complex, made worse by things like pain, or seizures. That sleep disturbance affects the whole household, including siblings.”

The experiences of caregivers were brought to light. “Caregivers experience severe fatigue, too, which impacts their own health, thinking, and ability to work. We also know these parents and families are trying different strategies and treatments to improve sleep. And what’s missing is tailored information … better information and supportive resources.”

Jasneek said that stemming from this and other studies, an amazing community of supporters formed. “A community of people who were willing to help us to try and improve the lives of these children and families.”

A subsequent MMRFF grant study, ‘early sleep interventions to improve outcomes in children with neurodisability’ revealed that the challenges faced by families of children with Down syndrome were mirrored in the lives of families whose children were living with other types of disability. The aim of this large study of 300 caregivers of children with neurodisability was to understand how sleep problems affect families – beyond medical outcomes and into daily life, wellbeing and coping strategies – and improve outcomes for these children through sleep interventions.

Improving sleep diagnosis and treatment for children with neurodisability

In a second phase of her MRFF funded program, Jasneek focused on diagnostic testing for sleep disordered breathing. Children with conditions like Down syndrome, Prader Willi Syndrome and Cerebral palsy have a higher rate of sleep disordered breathing, or SDB, than typically developing children.

On average, this group of children will undergo 3-4 sleep studies across their childhood, sometimes even more. Recognising the difficulties of standard sleep study monitoring for children with neurodisability, Jasneek and her research team set out to evaluate alternatives.

“Standard in-lab polysomnography (PSG) testing equipment is often problematic. It includes a lot of wires and attachments to the child, which many children, particularly those with sensory sensitivities, won’t tolerate. Children also don’t sleep well when in the lab as a result and so you don’t get a good measure of what may be happening at home.”

Working with Professor Sullivan, the founder of CPAP, a new sleep-monitoring mat, the Sonomat contactless mat, better suited to the needs of children with neurodisability, was developed and tested with the goal of validating a more tolerable diagnostic method for sleep-disordered breathing in children with neurodisability.

“This new, non-invasive mat does away with wires and sensors, like nasal prongs and EEG leads, making it much more tolerable.”

The final phase of the research program involves a randomised controlled trial (RCT) of a range of tailored sleep interventions for children with neurodisability, focusing on behavioural sleep problems and trying to determine the best approach to management.

National guidelines

Today, there are no clinical guidelines to support the evaluation and management of sleep problems in children with disability in Australia, or elsewhere in the world. Jasneek hopes that this research will contribute towards the development of appropriate national guidelines to help health professionals such as GPs, general paediatricians and allied health professionals manage sleep issues for children living with neurodisability.

“If we can improve this for families, for caregivers, the difference it will make to their quality of life is significant.”

“We all need sleep. It’s an essential to our lives. When I see families in the clinics, parents tell me I’ve changed their lives by helping them get sleep. All I’ve really done is I’ve simply listened and helped them find ways to manage this themselves, with tailored support.”

Jasneek Chawla is a paediatric respiratory and sleep physician at the Queensland Children’s Hospital in Brisbane, Associate Professor at the University of Queensland and President of the Australasian Sleep Association.

Antarctica and its extraordinary icy landscapes may not be on our minds daily. Yet, this icy continent is changing rapidly, and these transformations are influencing everything from sea levels to ecosystems. 

On most maps, Antarctica is shown as a thin strip at the bottom of the world. For oceanographers, however, Antarctica lies at the centre of the global ocean. The Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean basins extend north from the continent, and their currents converge around Antarctica, transporting water, heat, salt and nutrients.

“Sea ice, the thin layer of frozen sea water that forms in winter and melts during summer, plays a key role in driving these global ocean currents,” says Edward Doddridge, physical oceanographer from the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies in Tasmania.

Unprecedented sea ice loss: the bigger picture
“In recent years we have seen a collapse in Antarctic sea ice. Coverage in 2023 was the lowest ever recorded. And for the first time, sea ice loss was seen in Winter. The scale of ice loss was unprecedented.” 

Doddridge is part an international cohort of scientists working to understand why this sea ice decline is occurring. His research focuses on how heat moves through the oceans to Antarctica, how subsurface heat affects sea ice, and whether observed changes are temporary ‘blips’ or permanent shifts.

His work advances the scientific community’s understanding of the global climate system. In particular, how it is changing, and the impacts of those changes on our world. This work directly informs Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports, used by governments to inform policy.
 

The science beneath the ice 

Doddridge and other ocean and climate scientists rely on computer modelling, satellite data, and more than 4,000 autonomous ocean floats to monitor ocean conditions and ice changes in near-real time.

A key part of Earth’s climate system is the ocean’s ‘overturning circulation’ — a global network of currents that move heat, carbon, and nutrients around the planet. 

Warm, salty water flows from the tropics toward the poles. Around Antarctica, it cools, becomes denser, and sinks deep into the ocean. This water slowly returns to the north, bringing nutrients to the surface and helping to regulate the climate. 

When sea ice melts, it releases fresh water, less dense than salty water. This stabilises the surface layer, making it less likely to sink, and slowing the deep circulation. 

Rising global temperatures warm the upper ocean even further, weaking the sinking motion that drives this circulation.

“If this circulation weakens significantly, it can disrupt how the ocean stores and moves heat, carbon, and nutrients, with far-reaching effects on global climate systems including weather patterns, sea levels, and marine ecosystems.” 

The loss of Antarctic sea ice not only threatens ecosystems. It also threatens wildlife.

“This ice loss heightens the extinction risk for Emperor Penguins. Their breeding colonies, that live on the frozen sea ice, are vulnerable. Their chicks rely on stable sea ice ahead of growing their waterproof feathers.”

“Antarctica and its changing ice and oceans are intrinsic to life on the planet. Antarctica Day is a day on which to pause and consider the importance of that thin strip at the bottom of the map and the alarming changes we have seen unfold in recent years.”
 

Read some of Doddridge’s work and recent contributions here: 

Antarctica and Climate Change Technical Report. A technical report for the National Climate Risk Assessment. 

 Emerging evidence of abrupt changes in the Antarctic environment, published in Nature.

A multidisciplinary paper examining the impacts of Antarctic summer sea ice loss.

Record low Antarctic sea ice coverage indicates a new sea ice state, published in Nature.